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About 'nursing schools in south carolina'|...enough troops in the Army,” Mr. Thurmond..., into our schools and into our homes... from South Carolina to Florida so a woman...







About 'nursing schools in south carolina'|...enough troops in the Army,” Mr. Thurmond..., into our schools and into our homes... from South Carolina to Florida so a woman...








One               significant               health               problem               that               exists               within               the               American               Indian               population               is               Fetal               Alcohol               Syndrome.

A               2001               report               by               Center               for               Disease               Control               and               Prevention               found               the               rate               of               FAS               within               various               American               Indian               communities               to               be               1.5-2.5               per               1000               live               births.

That               rate               is               significantly               higher               than               the               0.2-1.0               per               1000               live               births               of               the               rest               of               the               United               States'               population               (May               &               Gossage,               2001).

Alcohol               use               by               American               Indian               women               is               so               prevalent               that               they               are               the               only               ethnic               group               in               which               chronic               liver               disease               is               one               of               the               ten               leading               causes               of               death               (Palacios               &               Portillo,               2009).

According               to               multiple               studies,               FAS               is               the               most               common               cause               of               mental               retardation               that               is               completely               preventable               (May               &               Moran,               1995;               Ma,               Toubbeh,               Cline,               &               Chisholm,               1998;               Kvigne               et               al,               2008).

When               alcohol               is               consumed               during               pregnancy               it               acts               as               a               teratogen,               a               substance               that               interferes               with               growth               and               development,               and               is               capable               of               causing               birth               defects.

The               alcohol               from               the               mother's               bloodstream               easily               crosses               the               placenta               and               into               the               fetal               bloodstream.

The               fetus               has               a               lower               capability               to               metabolize               the               alcohol               and               thus               it               remains               in               the               fetus'               system               for               a               greater               period               of               time               (Siegler,               Deloache,               &               Eisenberg,               2003).

FAS               is               diagnosed               if               three               necessary               criteria               are               met:               positive               facial               dysmorphic               characteristics,               neurodevelopmental               dysfunction,               and               growth               retardation               (Kenner               &               D'Apolito,               1997;               O'Leary,               2004).
               Native               American               mothers               are               vulnerable               to               giving               birth               to               children               with               FAS               because               of               several               social,               economic,               and               health               disparities.

More               than               one               quarter               of               all               American               Indians               live               in               poverty,               which               is               more               than               double               than               that               of               the               U.S.

population               (U.S.

Census               Bureau,               2007).

This               socioeconomic               condition               undoubtedly               affects               the               ability               of               Native               American               mothers               to               seek               appointments               for               the               wellness               of               their               unborn               child.

Another               inequality               lies               in               the               realm               of               education.

Fewer               American               Indians               (71%)               obtain               a               high               school               diploma               or               GED               than               all               other               Americans               (80%).

The               same               trend               can               be               applied               to               bachelor               degrees               with               11.5%               versus               24.4%               completion               (U.S.

Census               Bureau,               2007).

Lower               levels               of               education               may               contribute               to               a               lesser               understanding               of               the               damage               alcohol               does               to               the               fetus.

In               addition,               American               Indian               women               have               high               rates               of               alcohol               dependence.

Data               samples               from               two               tribes,               one               from               the               Northern               Plains               and               another               from               the               Southwest,               found               alcohol               dependence               rates               among               the               women               to               be               20.7%               and               8.7%               respectively               (Beals,               Novins,               &               Whitesell,               2005).
               Nurses               can               significantly               make               an               impact               on               reducing               the               number               of               American               Indian               children               with               Fetal               Alcohol               Syndrome.

To               begin,               nurses               can               educate               pregnant               mothers               about               the               problems               associated               with               alcohol               use               during               pregnancy.

Also,               nurses               can               advise               at               risk               mothers               to               completely               avoid               all               situations               in               which               alcohol               will               be               present               (Monsen,               2009).

By               completely               avoiding               alcohol,               the               pregnant               mother               does               not               have               to               confront               the               temptation               to               indulge.

Nurses               also               have               the               ability               to               refer               pregnant               women               who               have               alcohol               addictions               to               professional               counselors.

These               experts               have               a               better               understanding               about               alcohol               abuse               and               dependence.

Furthermore,               perinatal               nurses               can               advocate               for               alcohol               screenings               and               provide               necessary               interventions               for               at               risk               women               (Keough               &               Jennrich,               2009).

The               purpose               of               this               project               is               to               investigate               existing               literature               on               the               prevalence               of               fetal               alcohol               syndrome               within               the               American               Indian               population               in               an               attempt               to               understand               the               social,               economic,               ethical,               and               legal               causes               and               consequences               of               drinking               among               pregnant               women               in               this               group.
               Social               Factors               
               A               multitude               of               demographic               challenges               contribute               to               alcohol               use               by               pregnant               American               Indian               women.

According               to               the               Indian               Health               Service               (2002),               of               all               the               U.S.

minority               groups,               Native               American               women               who               live               on               or               near               a               reservation               are               least               likely               graduate               high               school               or               attend               college.

Sarche               and               Spicer               (2008)               note               other               educational               discrepancies               also               exist,               including               higher               dropout               rates               and               retention.

These               educational               disparities               leave               many               American               Indian               women               knowledge               deficient               of               the               consequences               associated               with               alcohol               consumption               during               pregnancy.
               The               knowledge               deficit               of               American               Indian               women               does               not               begin               in               adulthood,               but               rather               stems               from               a               lack               of               awareness               at               a               much               younger               age.

As               Fetal               Alcohol               Syndrome               rates               are               incredibly               high               among               many               Native               American               communities,               it               is               important               that               familiarity               of               the               disorder               is               achieved               early.

Xueqin,               Toubbeh,               Cline,               and               Chisholm               (1998)               and               Ma               et               al.

(1998)               studied               the               familiarity               and               attitudes               of               sixth,               seventh,               and               eighth               grade               students               towards               alcohol               and               Fetal               Alcohol               Syndrome.

Ma               et               al.

(1998)               published               more               of               a               quantitative               survey               of               the               subject's               knowledge               and               views               towards               alcohol               and               FAS.

The               data               gathered               acknowledged               that               although               the               subjects               were               sexually               active,               there               was               a               clear               knowledge               deficit               of               the               relationship               between               alcohol               and               FAS               (Ma               et               al.,               1998).

When               the               subjects               from               Xueqin               et.

al.

(1998)               were               asked               about               the               negative               effects               of               alcohol,               no               responses               were               made               about               alcohol's               effects               on               the               body               and               fetus               during               pregnancy.

In               the               same               study,               97%               of               the               subjects               were               unaware               of               the               causes               or               effects               of               Fetal               Alcohol               Syndrome.

Contrary               to               the               study               published               by               Xueqin               et               al.

(1998),               over               half               of               the               respondents               (56.5%)               in               the               study               by               Ma               et               al.

(1998)               knew               what               Fetal               Alcohol               Syndrome               was.

That               difference               could               be               caused               by               many               variations,               including               geographic               location,               socioeconomic               status,               or               familial               involvement.


               Ma               et               al.

(1998)               and               Xueqin               et               al.

(1998)               also               reported               the               rampant               use               of               alcohol               in               the               community               as               a               gateway               to               adolescent               use.

Some               American               Indian               women               may               begin               to               drink               because               they               see               family               members               drinking               socially               (Xueqin               et               al.,               1998).

Spillane               and               Smith               (2007)               make               mention               of               this               notion,               claiming               that               modeling               has               a               significant               impact               on               American               Indian               youths.

As               high               levels               of               American               Indian               drinking               become               established,               the               modeling               cycle               then               becomes               increasingly               difficult               to               break.
               Another               factor               that               can               contribute               to               alcohol               use               among               pregnant               American               Indian               women               is               violence.

This               group               has               the               highest               per               capita               violence               rate               among               people               between               the               ages               of               18               and               24               (Kvigne               et               al.,               2008).

Sarche               and               Spicer               (2008)               also               note               that               American               Indian               women               are               more               likely               to               report               domestic               violence               than               any               other               ethnic               group.

Kvigne               et               al.

(2008)               published               a               study               documenting               the               alcohol               use,               injuries,               and               prenatal               visits               of               American               Indian               women               in               three               successive               pregnancies.

When               compared               to               the               control               mothers,               women               who               gave               birth               to               children               with               Fetal               Alcohol               Syndrome               experienced               more               unintentional               and               intentional               injuries               during               pregnancy               (Kvigne               et.

al.,               2008).

From               these               findings,               Kvigne               et               al.

(2008)               claim               that               American               Indian               mothers               who               gave               birth               to               children               with               FAS               may               have               used               alcohol               to               cope               with               injuries               sustained               during               pregnancy.

Although               the               study               correlates               violence               with               alcohol               use               during               pregnancy               it               does               maintain               one               drawback,               as               the               researchers               were               limited               to               using               medical               records               to               obtain               their               data.

If               the               researchers               had               been               able               to               speak               with               the               mothers,               a               much               more               concrete               relationship               between               alcohol               use               and               violence               during               pregnancy               could               have               been               established.
               Economic               Factors               
               According               to               recent               studies               (Finfgeld,               2002;               Spillane               &               Smith,               2007)               economic               factors               may               or               may               not               contribute               to               maternal               alcohol               use               during               pregnancy.

Sarche               and               Spicer               (2008)               report               that               American               Indians               have               a               lower               rate               of               employment               than               the               general               population,               with               rates               ranging               from               14%               to               35%               on               some               reservations.

However,               in               some               rural               communities,               areas               in               which               reservation               dwelling               American               Indians               reside,               many               seasonal               jobs               are               available               (Finfgeld,               2002).

Finfgeld               (2002)               describes               how               the               seasonal               work               pattern               may               in               fact               cause               problems               for               American               Indian               women.

The               author               explains               that               the               availability               of               sporadic               work               may               actually               perpetuate               the               binge-abstinence               cycles               that               are               very               common               among               American               Indian               women.

This               notion               is               especially               disturbing               when               related               to               pregnant               Native               American               women               as               binge               drinking               can               do               significant               damage               to               the               unborn               fetus.

Spillane               &               Smith               (2007)               argue               that               although               socioeconomic               status               may               play               a               role               in               substance               abuse               among               American               Indians               the               degree               to               which               it               does               is               insignificant.

The               authors               claim               that               the               poverty               level               of               American               Indians               does               not               impact               their               alcohol               use.

However,               the               authors               do               concede               that               socioeconomic               status               may               not               appear               to               be               a               contributing               factor               to               alcohol               abuse               due               to               the               fact               that               there               is               little               variance               in               socioeconomic               status               among               American               Indians.
               In               addition,               economic               factors               have               proven               to               be               a               hindrance               in               obtaining               substance               abuse               treatment               and               prenatal               care               for               American               Indian               women.

Long               and               Curry               (1998)               explain               how               prenatal               care               changed               from               traditional               tribal               ways               to               Westernized               care               during               the               Termination               Era               of               the               1950s.

It               was               during               that               time               that               American               Indians               were               forced               to               assimilate               into               American               society.

The               authors               obtained               their               data               by               interviewing               52               American               Indian               women               ranging               in               age               from               18               to               80.

The               factors               that               currently               influence               American               Indian               women's               views               of               prenatal               care               include               the               breakdown               of               traditional               cultural               beliefs,               substance               abuse,               and               domestic               violence               (Long               &               Curry,               1998).

Long               and               Curry               (1998),               as               well               as               Moulton,               Miller,               Offutt,               and               Gibbens               (2007)               report               that               transportation               problems               impede               the               ability               of               American               Indian               women               to               obtain               prenatal               and               substance               abuse               care.

Long               and               Curry               (1998)               continue,               explaining               that               traveling               long               distances               and               harsh               weather               exacerbate               their               already               unreliable               transportation               methods.

The               study               by               Long               and               Curry               (1998)               could               be               significantly               strengthened               by               increasing               the               survey               size               and               diversifying               the               American               Indian               women               surveyed.

By               interviewing               a               greater               diversity               of               American               Indian               women               (different               tribes,               geographic               locations),               the               researchers               could               better               understand               the               needs               of               each               group               of               women.
               Access               to               substance               abuse               treatment               is               also               difficult               for               American               Indian               women               who               reside               in               rural               areas.

To               begin,               rural               residents               are               less               likely               to               have               private               medical               insurance               than               people               who               reside               in               urban               areas               (Finfgeld,               2002).

This               notion               results               in               many               women               relying               on               Medicare               or               Medicaid,               programs               which               may               limit               access               to               substance               abuse               treatment               in               rural               areas               (Finfgeld,               2002).

For               some               women,               a               program               that               is               covered               by               insurance               may               be               several               miles               away.

In               turn,               both               unreliable               private               transportation               and               a               lack               of               public               transportation               thwart               American               Indian               women               in               their               attempt               to               receive               substance               abuse               treatment               (Finfgeld,               2002).

These               economic               deterrents               inhibit               substance               abuse               and               perinatal               treatment               and               place               the               unborn               fetus               at               risk               for               FAS.
               Ethical               Factors               
               Although               ethical               issues               may               not               be               directly               responsible               for               the               consumption               of               alcohol               among               pregnant               American               Indians,               they               may,               however,               play               an               important               role               in               the               treatment               of               substance               abuse.

For               example,               Alcoholics               Anonymous,               a               program               that               contains               many               Christian               overtones,               may               clash               with               many               of               the               traditional               Native               American               beliefs               (Finfgeld,               2002).

Also,               many               forms               of               psychotherapy               may               not               be               acceptable               to               American               Indian               women               because               those               sessions               require               a               great               amount               of               self-disclosure               (Finfgeld,               2002).

From               this,               one               can               infer               that               treating               substance               abuse               in               this               population               requires               a               great               deal               of               cultural               competence.
               Roberts,               Johnson,               Brems               and               Werner               (2007)               published               a               report               pertaining               to               whether               healthcare               providers               felt               that               they               had               a               more               difficult               time               caring               for               American               Indians               than               for               the               general               population.

This               study               stemmed               from               previous               evidence               that               ethnic               minorities               receive               a               lesser               degree               of               care               due               to               low               levels               of               cultural               competence               among               healthcare               providers               (Burgess,               Fu,               &               van               Ryn,               2004).

Over               1500               multidisciplinary               providers               were               surveyed               across               rural               and               non-rural               areas               in               New               Mexico               and               Alaska.

The               providers               claimed               that               they               had               more               difficulties               with               minority               clients               in               the               areas               of               treatment               adherence,               therapeutic               alliance,               informed               consent,               and               confidentiality.

What               is               specifically               distressing               is               the               notion               that               the               providers               find               it               difficult               for               their               clients               to               maintain               adherence               to               treatment.

For               pregnant               American               Indian               women,               not               adhering               to               substance               abuse               treatment               can               lead               to               Fetal               Alcohol               Syndrome.

Non-adherence               then               becomes               an               even               greater               ethical               issue               due               to               the               fact               that               not               only               is               the               health               of               the               mother               in               danger,               but               also               the               health               of               the               unborn               child               who               is               not               able               to               make               decisions.
               Kenner               and               D'Apolito               (1997),               O'Leary               (2004)               and               Cappiello               and               Gahagan               (2009)               highlight               many               of               the               issues               that               a               child               born               with               FAS               will               face               throughout               his               or               her               lifetime.

Although               many               of               the               characteristic               dysmorphic               qualities               are               not               seen               right               after               birth,               traits               such               as               low               birth               weight,               microcephaly               and               difficulty               feeding               are               evident               very               early               in               the               affected               child's               life               (Kenner               &               D'Apolito,               1997).

A               diagnosis               of               FAS               is               not               usually               made               on               infants               before               two               years               of               age,               as               central               nervous               dysfunction               and               facial               morphology               may               prove               difficult               to               evaluate               at               that               time.

As               the               child               ages,               facial               features               such               as               short               palpebral               fissures,               an               indistinct               philtrum,               and               a               thin               upper               lip               may               become               more               prominent               (O'Leary,               2004).

These               children               may               also               be               more               likely               to               suffer               from               congenital               heart               defects,               renal               defects,               and               strabismus               (Cappiello               &               Gahagan,               2009).

By               the               age               of               one               year,               both               fine               and               gross               motor               abnormalities               may               become               evident,               which               can               lead               to               impaired               balance               and               gait               (O'Leary,               2004).

Children               suffering               from               Fetal               Alcohol               Syndrome               may               present               with               structural               defects               of               the               ear               that               can               lead               to               chronic               otitis               media               and               over               time               hearing               loss               (Kenner               &               D'Apolito,               1997;               O'Leary,               2004).

Communication               difficulties               also               persist,               rendering               social               interaction               and               development               difficult               (O'Leary,               2004).

As               the               child               ages,               behavioral               issues,               central               nervous               system               dysfunctions,               and               safety               become               the               main               issues.

School-age               children               suffering               from               FAS               are               inclined               to               be               impulsive               and               intrusive,               lack               social               judgment,               and               demand               attention               (O'Leary,               2004).

Thus,               these               children               may               present               with               many               signs               of               attention               deficit               hyperactive               disorder               and               researchers               are               currently               looking               for               a               link               between               the               two               (Kenner               &               D'Apolito,               1997;               O'Leary,               2004).

Overall,               because               of               the               mother's               decision               to               consume               alcohol               during               pregnancy,               the               affected               child               will               be               severely               limited               academically               and               may               find               it               nearly               impossible               to               thrive               in               society.
               Kenner               and               D'Apolito               (1997)               identify               a               strong               point               in               that               the               severity               of               the               disorder               is               individualistic               and               depends               on               many               other               factors               including               home               environment               and               support               services.

This               notion               is               especially               relevant               when               relating               it               with               American               Indians               as               many               children               affected               by               FAS               in               that               group               will               be               surrounded               by               substance               abuse               throughout               their               lives.

Many               adolescent               children               afflicted               with               FAS               also               fail               to               see               the               consequences               of               their               actions,               thus               making               safety               an               immense               concern.

Sarche               and               Spicer               (2008)               report               that               American               Indian               children               are               more               likely               to               be               killed               in               a               motor               vehicle               accident,               to               be               hit               by               a               car,               commit               suicide,               or               drown               than               either               African               Americans               or               Caucasians.

All               of               those               traumatic               events               can               relate               to               impaired               judgment,               impulsivity,               and               lower               inhibitions               caused               by               Fetal               Alcohol               Syndrome.
               Political               and               Legal               Factors               
               In               any               healthcare               situation,               confidentiality               is               a               major               legal               issue.

Failure               to               follow               legal               guidelines               can               lead               to               lawsuits               and               even               license               suspension               or               termination.

For               American               Indian               women               seeking               alcohol               abuse               treatment,               confidentiality               assurance               is               a               major               concern               (Finfgeld,               2002;               Roberts               et               al,               2007).

American               Indian               women               who               seek               treatment               for               alcohol               use               do               not               wish               to               be               stigmatized               by               the               community               and               are               legally               entitled               to               confidentiality.

Environmental               factors               also               play               a               role               in               deterring               confidentiality               assurance               for               American               Indian               women               (Finfgeld,               2002).

This               notion               stems               from               the               idea               that               rural               residents               are               offered               less               privacy               than               their               urban               counterparts               (Finfgeld,               2002).

For               these               legal               reasons,               American               Indian               women               may               find               it               difficult               to               anonymously               pursue               alcohol               abuse               treatment.
               In               recent               years,               much               debate               has               arisen               about               the               criminality               of               substance               abuse               during               pregnancy.

Although               considered               socially               immoral,               the               Supreme               Court               of               the               United               States               has               stated               that               substance               abuse               addiction               is               an               illness               and               that               criminalizing               it               violates               the               Eighth               Amendment               right               of               protection               against               cruel               and               unusual               punishment               (Harris               &               Paltrow,               2003).

If               ever               deemed               a               punishable               offense,               alcohol               abuse               during               pregnancy               could               become               a               very               important               issue               among               American               Indian               women.

Harris               and               Paltrow               (2003)               discuss               the               legality               of               criminalizing               substance               abuse               during               pregnancy,               as               well               as               whether               uniformed               drug               testing               during               pregnancy               for               the               purpose               of               prosecution               is               constitutional.

Paone               and               Alperen               (1998)               argue               that               efforts               to               criminalize               a               woman               for               substance               abuse               during               pregnancy               do               not               serve               to               protect               the               children,               but               rather               act               as               a               means               to               punish               mothers               for               their               morally               wrong               social               behavior.
               In               2001,               the               case               of               Ferguson               v               City               of               Charleston               debated               the               constitutionality               of               substance               abuse               screening               during               pregnancy               without               explicit               consent               (Harris               &               Paltrow,               2003).

The               verdict               of               the               Supreme               Court               was               that               screening               a               woman               without               her               consent               was               a               violation               of               her               Fourth               Amendment               rights               that               protect               her               from               unreasonable               or               warrantless               seizures               (Harris               &               Paltrow,               2003).

Women               who               abuse               alcohol               during               pregnancy               can               possibly               be               prosecuted               with               charges               ranging               from               child               abuse               or               neglect,               contributing               to               the               delinquency               of               a               minor,               and               child               endangerment               (Paone               &               Alperen,               1998;               Harris               &               Paltrow,               2003).

However,               no               state               has               adopted               laws               that               create               unique               penalties               for               pregnant               women               who               consume               teratogenic               substances               during               pregnancy               (Harris               &               Paltrow,               2003).

However,               South               Carolina               law               views               viable               fetuses               as               a               child               and               thus               considers               any               positive               toxicology               screen               during               pregnancy               to               be               child               endangerment               or               abuse               and               the               child               is               removed               from               the               mother's               custody               (Harris               &               Paltrow,               2003).
               It               can               be               ascertained               from               reading               the               two               articles               that               the               authors               prefer               substance               abuse               treatment               and               support               options               for               the               mothers               as               opposed               to               punitive               measures.

Paone               and               Alperen               (1998)               suggest               substance               abuse               funding               for               pregnant               women               be               increased               and               that               appropriate               and               effective               forms               of               counseling               be               enacted.

Harris               and               Paltrow               (2003)               conclude               that               healthcare               workers               should               serve               the               needs               of               their               clients               and               should               not               act               as               an               arm               of               the               judicial               system.
               Conclusions               
               It               can               be               concluded               that               Fetal               Alcohol               Syndrome,               although               completely               preventable,               is               a               cause               for               concern               in               the               American               Indian               population.

American               Indian               women               face               several               social               disparities,               many               in               which               place               them               at               a               high               risk               to               deliver               a               child               with               Fetal               Alcohol               Syndrome.

Also,               an               evident               knowledge               deficit               of               the               causes               and               effects               of               FAS               is               discernable               from               a               young               age               and               clearly               continues               into               adulthood.

Increased               rates               of               domestic               violence               place               pregnant               American               Indian               women               at               risk               for               consuming               alcohol               during               pregnancy               as               a               means               to               cope               with               their               anxiety.

In               addition,               economic               hardships               encourage               binge-abstinence               cycles               of               alcohol               use               because               of               intermittent               work.

The               problem               does               not               end               there,               however,               as               the               transportation               difficulties               and               insurance               issues               faced               by               many               American               Indian               women               make               obtaining               substance               abuse               treatment               and               perinatal               care               very               difficult.

The               inability               of               American               Indian               care               providers               to               facilitate               a               therapeutic               relationship               may               contribute               to               a               lack               of               substance               abuse               adherence.

Consequently,               American               Indian               women               who               abuse               alcohol               are               then               at               risk               for               directly               causing               fetal               damage               and               possibly               delivering               a               child               born               with               Fetal               Alcohol               Syndrome.

Finally,               prosecutors               of               some               U.S.

states               are               pursuing               criminal               action               against               women               who               knowingly               endanger               their               unborn               child               by               abusing               alcohol.

Although               South               Carolina               is               currently               the               only               state               that               views               an               unborn               fetus               as               a               child               thus               allowing               for               child               abuse               charges,               it               is               not               unrealistic               to               see               other               states               criminalize               substance               abuse               during               pregnancy.
               References
               Beals,               J.D.,               Novins,               D.K.,               &               Whitesell,               N.R.

(2005).

Prevalence               of               mental               disorders               and
               utilization               of               mental               health               services               in               two               American               Indian               reservation
               populations:               Mental               health               disparities               in               a               national               context.

American               Journal
               of               Psychiatry,               162(9),               1723-1732.
               Burgess,               D.J.,               Fu,               S.S.,               &               van               Ryn,               M.

(2004).

Why               do               providers               contribute               to
               disparities               and               what               can               be               done               about               it.

Journal               of               General               Internal
               Medicine,               19(11),               1154-1159.
               Cappiello,               M.M.,               &               Gahagan,               S.

(2009).

Early               child               development               and               developmental               delay               in
               indigenous               communities.

Pediatric               Clinics               of               North               America,               56(6),               1501-1517.
               Centers               for               Disease               Control               and               Prevention.

(2001).

Fetal               alcohol               syndrome               -
               Alaska,               Arizona,               Colorado,               and               New               York               -               1995-1997.

Morbidity               and
               Mortality               Weekly               Report,               51(20),               433-435.
               Finfgeld,               D.L.

(2002).

Alcohol               treatment               for               women               in               rural               areas.

Journal               of               the
               American               Psychiatric               Nurses               Association,               8(2),               37-43.
               Harris,               L.H.,               &               Paltrow,               L.

(2003).

The               status               of               pregnant               women               and               fetuses               in               U.S.

criminal
               law.

The               Journal               of               the               American               Medical               Association,               289(13),               1697-1699.
               Indian               Health               Service.

(2002).

Income               status               in               1989,               American               Indians               and               all               U.S.
               races,               1990               census.

Washington,               DC:               U.S.

Department               of               Health               and               Human
               Services.
               Keltner,               B.,               Kelley,               F.J.

&               Smith,               D.

(2004).

Leadership               to               reduce               health               disparities:               A
               model               for               nursing               leadership               in               American               Indian               communities.

Nursing
               Administration               Quarterly,               28(3),               181-190.
               Kenner,               C.,               &               D'Apolito,               K.

(1997).

Outcomes               for               children               exposed               to               drugs               in               utero.

Journal               of
               Obstetric,               Gynecologic               &               Neonatal               Nursing,               26(5),               595-603.
               Keough,               V.A.,               &               Jennrich,               J.A.

(2009).

Including               a               screening               and               brief               alcohol
               intervention               program               in               the               care               of               the               obstetric               patient.

Journal               of               Obstetric,
               Gynecologic               &               Neonatal               Nursing,               38(6),               715-722.
               Kvigne,               K.L.,               Leonardson,               G.

R.,               Borzelleca,               J.,               Brocke,               E.,               Neff-Smith,               M.,               &               Welty,
               T.K.

(2008).

Alcohol               use,               injuries,               and               prenatal               visits               during               three               successive
               pregnancies               among               American               Indian               women               on               the               Northern               Plains               who
               have               children               with               Fetal               Alcohol               Syndrome               or               incomplete               Fetal               Alcohol
               Syndrome.

Maternal               and               Child               Health               Journal,               12(1),               37-45.
               Long,               C.R.,               &               Curry,               M.A.

(1998).

Living               in               two               worlds:               Native               American               women               and               prenatal               care.


               Health               Care               for               Women               International,               19(3),               205-215.
               Ma,               G.

X.,               Toubbeh,               J.,               Cline,               J.,               &               Chisholm,               A.

(1998).

Native               American               adolescents'
               views               of               Fetal               Alcohol               Syndrome               prevention               in               schools.

Journal               of               School
               Health,               68(4),               131-136
               May,               P.A.

&               Gossage,               J.P.

(2001).

Estimating               the               prevalence               of               fetal               alcohol
               syndrome:               A               summary.

Alcohol               Research               and               Health,               25(3),               159-167.
               May,               P.A.

&               Moran,               J.R.

(1995)               Prevention               of               alcohol               misuse:               A               review               of               health
               Promotion               efforts               among               American               Indians.

American               Journal               of               Health
               Promotion,               9(4),               288-299.
               Monsen,               R.B.

(2009).

Prevention               is               best               for               fetal               alcohol               syndrome.

Journal               of
               Pediatric               Nursing,               24(1),               60-61.
               Moulton,               P.L.,               Miller,               M.E.,               Offutt,               S.M.,               &               Gibbens,               B.P.

(2007).

Identifying               rural               health               needs
               using               community               conversations.

The               Journal               of               Rural               Health,               23(1),               92-96.
               O'Leary,               C.M.

(2004).

Fetal               alcohol               syndrome:               Diagnosis,               epidemiology,               and               developmental
               outcomes.

Journal               of               Paediatrics               and               Child               Health,               40(1-2),               2-7.
               Palacios,               J.F.,               &               Portillo,               C.J.

(2009).

Understanding               native               women's               health.

Journal               of
               Transcultural               Nursing,               20(1),               15-27.
               Paone,               D.,               &               Alperen,               J.

(1998).

Pregnancy               policing:               Policy               of               harm.

International               Journal               of
               Drug               Policy,               9(2),               101-108.
               Roberts,               L.W.,               Johnson,               M.E.,               Brems,               C.,               &               Warner,               T.D.

(2007).

Ethical               disparities:               Challenges
               encountered               by               multidisciplinary               providers               in               fulfilling               ethical               standards               in               the               care               of
               rural               and               minority               people.

The               Journal               of               Rural               Health,               23(1),               89-97.
               Sarche,               M.,               &               Spicer,               D.

(2008).

Poverty               and               health               disparities               for               American               Indian
               and               Alaska               Native               children.

Annals               of               the               New               York               Academy               of               Sciences,
               1136,               126-136.
               Siegler,               R.,               DeLoache,               J.,               &               Eisenberg,               N.

(2003).

How               Children               Develop.

New               York,
               New               York:               Worth               Publishers
               Spillane,               N.S.,               &               Smith,               G.T.

(2007).

A               theory               of               reservation-dwelling               American               Indian
               alcohol               use               risk.

Psychological               Bulletin,               133(3),               395-418.
               Xuequin,               G.,               Toubbeh,               J.,               Cline,               J.,               &               Chisholm,               A.

(1998).

The               use               of               a               qualitative
               approach               in               Fetal               Alcohol               Syndrome               prevention               among               American               Indian
               youth.

Journal               of               Alcohol               &               Drug               Education,               43(3),               53-65.
               United               States               Census               Bureau.

(2007).

We               the               people:               American               Indians               and               Alaskan               Natives               in
               the               United               States.

Retrieved               from:               http://www.census.gov/population/www/socdemo/race/censr-28.pdf.






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